26/03/2013
Uganda's economy is predominantly agrarian; 36% of the GDP, 81% of the employed labor force, and 31% of export earnings are derived from the agricultural sector. A total of 6,810,000 ha (16,828,000 acres), or one-third of the land area, is under cultivation. Subsistence production remains the pattern; 70% of the area under cultivation is used to produce locally consumed food crops. Women provide over half of agricultural labor, traditionally focusing on food rather than cash crop production. The monetary value of market crops is exceeded by the estimated value of subsistence agriculture. Plantains, cassava, sweet potatoes, and bananas are the major food crops (MAAIF, 1995).
The poultry industry in Uganda is composed of 21.8 million birds (MAAIF 1998) and estimated to consist mainly of chicken comprising of 10 million birds. Over 90% of Ugandan chickens are indigenous stock reared under the Backyard system (Olaboro 1990), producing an average of 50 eggs per hen per year. The eggs are either for hatching chicks or used as table eggs. The other 10% consist of improved exotic commercial layers and broilers kept under the intensive system of husbandry mainly in urban areas. Intensively managed commercial enterprises comprise of small units of between 50 and 500 birds, the medium sized units of 500-1,000 birds; and few less than 5% of the large scale units of over 1,000 birds (Nsubuga 1985; Olaboro 1990). The village flocks consist of unimproved local chickens, typically 5-20 birds per family (Okot 1990). A part from chickens, other species of birds kept in rural areas include turkeys, ducks and guinea fowls and pigeons.
In Uganda, chicken is sold expensively compared to beef yet the reverse is true in developed countries. This is so because poultry farming is practiced at a small scale and poor management methods are employed (Dr. Maggie, 2004). Management of poultry by most farmers is improper in that are housed too densely, their environment becomes too hot during day or cold especially at night resulting in stress and birds are fed on incorrect feed composition causing deficient diseases. According to the records in the District Veterinary Officer’s office, information on poultry is scarce and as such poultry production in Najjembe Sub County is likely to be suffering from some of the many retrogressive factors that make the industry not realize its full potential. It is on the basis of such information that investigating the factors affecting the poultry production in this county is the core area of study in this investigation (MAAIF 1998).
Poultry production in Uganda is one of the areas of importance in the national economy and performs a major role in improving the nutritional status and income for many small holder farmers and landless communities through provision of eggs and meat for home consumption as well as surplus for the market. Over 70% of the poultry products and 20% of animal protein in Uganda comes from this sector. However, mortalities due to disease and predation have been so high that poultry production has been too low and irregular (Kitalyi, 2006).
Currently, the population of chicken in Uganda is composed of exotic commercial birds and the indigenous free range chicken. The population of rural indigenous chicken in the country has been estimated at 20 million or 80% of the national flock (MAAIF, 2005). Indigenous chicken are kept for meat, eggs, income and socio-cultural roles. In spite of the current level of introduction of exotic chickens in Uganda, local chickens have continued to be sold well in urban areas and demand for them still exceeds supply. Indigenous chickens are preferred to exotic ones because of their pigmentation, organoleptic qualities (taste and flavour), leanness and suitability for special dishes (Ssewanyana et al., 2001).
Problem statement
Poultry is one of the most important protein sources and income generating products in Najjembe Sub County. Unfortunately, the quantity of poultry and poultry products produced by farmers is small (Highlights CIAT Africa, 2002). No study has been carried out to identify the factors affecting poultry production in this area and there are no records about management factors affecting poultry production. Therefore, the study is carried out to identify the management factors limiting intensive poultry production and find the possible solutions.
Objectives of the study
The major objective of the study is to assess the production and marketing of local poultry in Najjembe Sub County.
The specific objectives include;
To obtain base line data on the production of local chicken in Najjembe sub county.
To describe the existing factors limiting the production of local chicken in Najjembe sub county.
To establish the marketing channels for local poultry in Mukono.
To calculate the marketing margins for local poultry.
To determine the marketing channels for local poultry in Mukono.
To determine the profitability
Significance of the study
This study has the following potential benefits;
To the local community in Uganda, the study will bring to light the various aspects relating to indigenous chicken such as the physical and production environment, in order to enable them improve on their production scale.
The study will also highlight the marketing channel of indigenous chicken.
CHAPTER TWO
Literature review
Management systems in intensive poultry production
Intensive poultry production is based on special poultry breeds and constitutes 30% of the chicken in Africa. In intensive management system, producers aim at using recommended practices such as breed of choice, appropriate housing, feeding, health and disease control (Katalyi, 1998). The systems involved in intensive poultry production include; slated floor, deep litter and battery cage systems.
a) Slated floor system
Here birds are stocked at a rate of 0.09 square meter per bird and little labour is needed (Sainsbury, 1993). The floor is made of wire mesh and is raised to a height of 1m (Williamson and payne, 1984).
b) Deep litter system
Most farmers have adopted the deep litter system, however its effectiveness is hindered by poor house construction and spillage of water. Coffee husks, saw dust and wood shavings are used as litter. The success of deep litter system is dependent on decomposition of litter by bacteria (Sainabury, 1993). Litter keeps birds clean ann comfortable and absorbes moisture from droppings (Ensimiger, 1992).
c) Battery cage system
This is the most efficient because egg production and feed conversion efficiency are high. The disadvantages of this system are; it is costly to install, many eggs get cracks and poultry are highly predisposed to vermins and insects (William and Payne, 1984). The poultry house unit is constructed and fitted with battery cages that may be communal or individual, feacal matter collects on feacal trays underneath the battery cages that are cleaned manually (Portsmouth, 1989).
Poultry environment and housing
a) Ventilation and humidity
The main objective of efficient ventilation is to ensure an adequate supply of fresh air to the birds, remove unwanted gases and excess moisture. Poultry houses may be ventilated naturally or mechanically (Portsmouth, 1989).
Natural ventilation is commonly used in Africa and depends on the difference in temperature between air inside the poultry house and that outside. If the air outside is cooler than that inside, warm air inside the house is drown out and is replaced by cooler air. The open side walls act as inlets ridge ventilators or openings on the end walls near ridges act as outlets. Air velocity is of importance in natural ventilation because it affects the rate of change of air. Continuous ridge ventilators are desirable for long buildings but for small buildings two outlet ventilators near the roof on each side of the wall are enough (Kekeocha, 1984).
Relative humidity of 60-80% is desired in the house for optimum production (Pattison, 1993). Ensminger (1992) recommends relative humidity of 60-70% for layer houses as high humidity reduces evaporation and increases survival of pathogens.
b) Lighting
Egg production is stimulated by increase in day length. Reduction in day length leads to cessation of egg production and birds molt. Under natural light conditions, day length varies with the time of the year and latitude. At equinox (23rd march and 22nd September), the days and nights are equal in length. At the equator, day length is a little over 12 hours. Open sided houses are a norm in the tropics and therefore supplementing light in normal. In humid areas, where there is little change in day length through out the year, 2-3 hours of artificial lighting is recommended for laying birds (Smith, 1993).
If light intensity is unevenly distributed in the house, with bright and dark areas, birds tend to concentrate in areas with light and this tends to cause development of vices and respiratory diseases (Sainabury, 1993). Longer days stimulate egg production and encourage hens to consume more feed. In broilers, too much light may increase their activities and therefore reduce the efficiency of feed utilization (Smith, 1993).
c) Temperature
Adequate housing must provide the flock with optimum air quality and warm conditions so that performance may be optimized. Poultry house insulation is a requisite for open sided and environmentally controlled houses. Most insulation is confined to the roof where greatest heat is lost during cold weather conditions and also where sun rays strike (North and Bell, 1990).
Brooding temperature is 35-37.7 degrees Celsius in the first week of life. This is reduced by 3 degrees each week as birds grow. Huddling of chicks together around the heat source indicates that the temperature is too low. Chicks are widely spread out if temperature is too high but those that are contented are evenly spread over the brooding area (Portsmouth, 1989). Adult hen produce eggs maximally with optimum temperature close to 24degrees (Austic land Nesheim, 1990) but in intensively managed birds, optimum temperature should be 21degrees (Pattson, 1993). Oba 2000) recommends a temperature 75 for broilers. Increase in ambient temperature reduces appetite, water intake increases, egg weight and egg productivity reduces. It also results in laying thin shelled eggs (Kekeocha, 1984; Smith, 1993; Pattison, 1993). Temperature below the optimum level depresses hatchability, feed conversion efficiency and egg weight (North and Bell, 1990)
d) Chicken spacing
Chicken spacing is of importance in the poultry house to avoid overcrowding since this facilitates disease transmission. Stocking depends on the type of chicken. Management system, age and size of chicken. The floor space requirement of broilers is 0.3 sq feet from 0-4 weeks of age and 0.75 sq feet from 4-8 weeks of age while layers need 0.3 sq feet of space from 0-4 weeks, 0.6 sq feet from 4-8 weeks, 1.25 sq feet from 9-16 weeks and 1.5 sq feet for over 16weeks of age (Ensminger, 1992).
Housing floor requirements fro free range poultry are 3sq feet per bird. Indigenous birds have a small body size and their stocking density is 5 birds per sq meter (Portsmouth, 1989) or 15kg live weight per sq meter (Ensminger, 1992).
In the brooder, 7 meters of hover space is allowed per 1000 chicks and feeder space of 2.5cm per chick in the first 4 weeks, 5cm per chick in the second month and 7 cm in the third month. Water space of 2.5 cm is allowed per chick in the first 2 weeks of their life and 5cm in the remaining period (Kekeocha, 1984).
e) Feeding and nutrition
Poultry feeds are referred to as complete feeds because they contain proteins, energy, vitamins, minerals and other nutrients necessary for proper growth, egg production and health of birds. Carbohydrates and fats are primary sources of energy needed to maintain body temperature, movement of the body and for chemical reactions involved in synthesis of body tissues and elimination of wastes (Austic and Nisheim, 1990).
The conventional foodstuffs used in feed formulation are maize, sorghum, fishmeal, soyabean meal as sources of carbohydrates and proteins respectively. Other ingredients added include; mineral salts, vitamins, cocidiostarts and antiosidants like ethoxyquine or butylated hydroxytoluene, vitamin and mineral premixes (Smith, 1993). When feeding broilers, broiler starter is given to the birds from 0-21 days of age the followed by broiler finisher. Each broiler chick consumes1.5kg of broiler starter in the brooding period (0-3 weeks) and 3.5kg of broiler finisher from 4-7 weeks of age (Ugachick poultry breeders). For layers, chick mash is given from 0-8 weeks of age followed by grower’s mash from 9-20 weeks. After 20 weeks of age, layer’s complete meal is given (NUVITA Uganda feeds limited). Each layer chick consumes 2kg of chick mash in the brooding period (0-8 weeks), 6kg of grower’s mash in the growing period (9-20 weeks) and 49kf of layer’s mash in the laying period from 21-80 weeks of age (Ugachick poultry breeders).
f) Water consumption
Water is normally provided adlibitum. Water consumption increases with increase in age of the bird, protein and sodium chloride levels in the feed. Water deprivation can lead to death of poultry within 24 hours. A 10% restriction of water availability can reduce the growth rate and feed conversion efficiency of broilers. In layers, water deprivation can lead to moulting and cessation of egg production (Smith, 1993).
g) Litter management
Coffee husks, saw dust and wood shavings are used as litter. The success of deep litter system is dependent on decomposition of litter by bacteria(Sainsbury, 1993). Litter keep the birds clean and comfortable and absorbs moisture from droppings (Ensiminger, 1992). During the growing period, litter should contain 20-30% moisture. This result in better feather growth close to normal, feed conversion is improved, coccidiosis problems are easily controlled and ammonia in the poultry house is easily controlled (North and Bell, 1990). In brooder houses, wet litter can have a calamitous effect on the feet of c***s causing accumulation of infected litter on the feet leading to fall in the level of fertility (Sainsbury, 1993).
Proper litter management in the poultry house reduces the need to remove litter in between flocks and aids in creating clean out schedule that allows direct application of manure onto cropland without intermediate storage.
The primary key to good litter management is keeping litter dry. Wet litter is undesirable and creates a condition where more nitrogen is released in form of ammonia. Good litter conditions are maintained if there is proper heating and ventilation, selection ands operation of watering systems to minimise water spillage on litter. Drinker points and drinking areas are dangerous due to water splashing and concentration of birds. Therefore it is essential to frequently turn this litter. Wet litter is cold and tends to take up heat in an attempt to dry up. It’s advisable to start with about 70mm layer of litter and add to it with time. Adding litter dilutes droppings and the condition of litter is improved. High ammonia levels are dangerous and unpleasant to operators. Ammonia levels should not exceed 15-20 p.p.m. levels over40p.p.m may reduce feed intake. Levels over 50p.p.m affect the mucous membranes lining the respiratory tract, affect respiration and may also cause blindness (Sainsbury, 1993).
h) Record keeping
The key to good business and management is records. Records are kept to provide information from which the poultry business may analysed so that the operator may develop more effective plans to develop the enterprise, to provide profit and loss accounts, to provide net worth statement showing financial progress throughout the year, to keep production records on birds and to keep a complete historical record of financial transactions for future reference (Ensminger, 1992).
Issues recorded by most farmers include; total number of birds housed, the cost of birds or the cost of rearing birds if it’s done by the owner, eggs collected daily, sales made, feed consumption, mortality and labour costs (Sainabury, 1993). Records should not be elaborated otherwise they may not be kept properly by workers (Smith, 1993).
i) Marketing
In Africa and other tropical areas, marketing of eggs and poultry is not highly organized. Sale of eggs and poultry depends on the farmer’s initiative. Efforts to establish market schemes in different areas have not yet succeeded and there are few commercial parkers thus making it a problem to farmers and acts as a brake to poultry production. In a glut, price cutting becomes acute and farmers have to sale off their produce at lower price to reduce the stock (Kekeocha, 1984). In the poultry industry there is no room for unplanned and uncoordinated production therefore its important for the producers to make advance arrangements for the disposal of their birds and eggs at an appropriate time. The more control the poultry industry gains over the marketing and distribution of its produce the better it becomes for each individual producer.
The way in which the poultry meat is presented is important if sales are to increase. The prepacked carcasses whether frozen or fresh must have an eye appeal. Processing of poultry involves killing the bird, bleeding, hanging for reflex action to cease and plucking. This is followed by evisceration, washing, grading, parking and freezing. Many producers take no step to find the most appropriate market for their products nor do they study the requirements for the prospective buyers sufficiently. It’s only in the broiler industry where it has been considered. The various sales outlets for poultry and its products are; consumers at farm gate (carcasses are dressed), retail outlets, hotels and other catering establishments, parking stations, traveling dealers and large central markets (Portsmouth, 1989).
On the side of eggs, its future lies in promoting egg dish suited for the local dish. After eggs are collected at the poultry farm, they should be graded. This is to make sure that the eggs reach the consumers with the least possible loss of their original quality. The quality of commercial eggs is measured by; cleanliness, shape, colour, size and weight. Cracked, misshapen and broken eggs are always rejected. Eggs with chalk heads, sand heads of body checks are disqualified even if the defects are minor. Egg size and weight should be uniform. Double York and jumbo eggs are rejected and sold locally to overcome transport problems very eggs are discarded. According to African classification, large eggs are 65g and above. Medium eggs are 55-64g while small eggs are 40-55g. according European classification, class 1 eggs are 70g and above, class 2 eggs are 65-70g, class 3 eggs are 60-65g, class 4 are 55-60g,class 5 are 50-55g, class 6 are 45-50g while class 7 are 45g and below.
Internally, egg quality is measured by the size of the air space, condition of the yolk and the egg white, presence of blood and meat spots or other abnormalities in the egg white. This is done by candling (Kekeocha, 1984).
j) Poultry diseases
Disease is a deviation from normal health, a condition where all the organ systems and the body structures are working in full harmony. In disease, functions of organs and body structures is up set and normal life is disturbed. In most cases, poultry diseases manifest by clinical signs and these may include; reduced feed intake, reduced egg production, high mortality, isolation from other birds and re****ed growth (Kekeocha, 1984). The management decision made by the owner and the implementation by the stock person are reflected in the health of the flock especially in birds kept intensively (Partison, 1993). The diseases that commonly affect chicken may be grouped into bacterial, viral, protozoal, helminth and fungal.
Bacterial diseases
Salmonella infections
They are caused by bacteria of genus salmonella. The infections are categorized into salmonella pullorum, fowl typhoid and paratyphoid infections.
Pullorum disease
The disease is caused by salmonella pullorum and usually causes high mortality in young chicks and occasionally in adult chicken. The disease is chiefly transmitted through the egg, but also occurs by direct or indirect contact. Poultry visitors and buyers may also carry the infection on their clothes and footwear (Calneck, 1993).
Pullorum disease is controlled by establishing a breeding stock free from S. pullorum, hatch and rear the progeny directly or indirectly avoiding contact with infected chicken and turkey (Caknek, 1997).
Fowl typhoid
The causal agent is salmonella gallinarum. This infection is similar to pullorum disease. The disease is egg transmitted and has greater tendency o spread by direct or indirect contact in among growing and adult flocks. Mortality is high in all ages. Older birds may get dehydrated, anaemic and develop enteritis.
Clinically fowl typhoid mainly affects growing adult birds. Signs shown include; reduced appetite, ruffled feathers, pale shruncken comb, reduced egg production, fertility and hatchability, fever, diarrhea and dehydration. Death occurs within 1-5 days (Sainabury, 1993; Calnek, 1997).
The disease is prophylactically controlled and treated using sulfonamide drugs as in plorum disease. Fowl typhoid is controlled by establishing a breeding stock free from S. gallinarum, hatch and rear the progeny directly or indirectly avoiding contact with infected chicken and turkeys (Calnek, 1997).
Helminhosis
This affects birds on free range and deep litter systems. The disease is mainly caused by tape worms such as; Rallietine echinobothrida, R. tetragena, round worms such as; ascaridia galli, caecal worms like Heterekis gallinae, thread worms like the capillaria species (Kekeocha, 1984)
Generally the chicks are droopy; there is failure to gain weight, low egg production in layers, diarrhoea and
