29/07/2026
Examine UPI monetization models.
UPI monetization remains challenging because of the long-standing zero Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) policy on most bank-account-funded person-to-merchant (P2M) and person-to-person (P2P) transactions (in place since January 2020). Banks and fintechs largely treat UPI as high-volume public infrastructure rather than a direct profit centre, and they recover costs through indirect or adjacent models.
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